Annotated Bibliography 2020 10.5-10.11
Annotated Bibliography 2020 10.5-10.11
Next Monday I will do a book reading presentaion. So this post will mainly include the book reading and some other oceanography quick look.
And from this semester, I think I'd better make some notes for seminar to keep myself concentrated.
Book reading
Ch. 1.1-1.2.2 of book <Emery, William, and Adriano Camps. Introduction to satellite remote sensing: atmosphere, ocean, land and cryosphere applications. Elsevier, 2017.>
The definition of Remote Sensing
Remote sensing: a measurement made by some indirect or “remote” means rather than by a contact sensor.
In its application to satellite and aircraft instrumentation, remote sensing relied primarily upon either reflected or emitted electromagnetic radiation (optical and mi- crowave) from the Earth to infer changes on the Earth’s surface or in the overlying atmosphere.
The fact that these inferences must be made from a by-product (either the reflected or the emitted radiation) of the surface or atmospheric process qualifies satellite data collection as “remote sensing.”
Other applications such as the use of acoustic signals to map the internal character of the ocean and the solid Earth are often also considered as a remote sensing. In the past few decades, however, satellite and aircraft data analyses have become even more closely associated with the term remote sensing.
The History of Satellite Remote Sensing
The Nature of Light and the Development of Aerial Photography
Early work by Sir Isaac Newton: white light is not a single entity
In optics, chromatic aberration (CA), also called chromatic distortion and spherochromatism, is a failure of a lens to focus all colors to the same point. It is caused by dispersion: the refractive index of the lens elements varies with the wavelength of light.
When he passed a thin beam of sunlight through a glass prism, Newton noted the spectrum of colors that was formed. Newton argued that white light is really a mixture of many different types of rays, which are refracted at slightly different angles, and that each different type of ray produces a different spectral color. Newton was led by this reasoning to the erroneous conclusion that telescopes using refracting lenses would always suffer chromatic aberration. He therefore proposed and constructed a reflecting telescope (i.e., using mirrors).
Maxwell:
Phenomenon of light is therefore an electromagnetic phenomenon
Daguerre:
first photographic plate, which consisted of a thin film of polished silver on a copper base
Nie ́pce: reduced the exposure time from 8 h down to half an hour.
topographic mapping was first suggested in 1849
Balloonist F. Tournachon undertook initial attempts in 1858 from a captive balloon a few hundred meters over Petit Bicetre in France using large silver plates as the camera
Balloon photographs of Confederate positions during the American Civil War represent the first practical use of aerial photography.
Maddox, in 1871, film
Triboulet used dry plates in 1879 to photograph Paris from a free balloon. The size of the camera was also reduced which opened more opportunities for photography.
English meteorologist E. Archibald: first kite photographs in 1882
In 1889, R. Thiele, from Russia, mounted cameras on seven unmanned kites to produce a “panaramograph.”
In 1885, W. A. Eddy, an American meteorologist in New Jersey, reported the first kite photograph taken in the western hemisphere
kite-camera system, which proved a useful supplement to balloon photography during the Spanish-American war. G. R. Lawrence, referred to as the “King of Kite Photography,” used kite systems with cameras weighing up to 454 kg and negatives as large as 1.35 m 2.4 m. He is particularly noted for his photograph of San Francisco just after the earthquake of 1906
the attachment of cameras to carrier pigeons at the 1909 world’s fair in Dresden,which would then be developed and printed for sale to the attendees at the fair that can see themselves and the overall fairgrounds.
In 1908 a passenger appropriately collected the first aircraft still photographs with Wilbur Wright flying on a test flight in France (Fig. 1.6), while another passenger took the first aerial movies with Wilbur in the following year.
Samuel Goddard collected the first rocket photos in 1926 during his experiments with rocketry.
The Birth of Earth-Orbiting Satellites
In 1903, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky (1857e1935) published Exploring Space Using Jet Propulsion Devices: first academic treatise on the use of rocketry to launch spacecraft.
He calculated the orbital speed required for a minimal orbit around the Earth at 8 km/s, and that a multistage rocket fueled by liquid propellants could be used to achieve this. He proposed the use of liquid hydrogen and liquid oxygen, though other combinations can be used.
In 1928, Slovenian Herman Potocnik (1892e1929) published his sole book, The Problem of Space TraveldThe Rocket Motor (German: Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraumsdder Raketen- Motor): a plan for a breakthrough into space and a permanent human presence there.
He conceived a space station in detail and calculated its geostationary orbit. He described the use of orbiting spacecraft for detailed peaceful and military observation of the ground and described how the special conditions of space could be useful for scientific experiments. The book described geostationary satellites (first put forward by Tsiolkovsky) and discussed communication between them and the ground using radio, but fell short of the idea of using satellites for mass broadcasting and as tele- communications relays.
In a 1945 Wireless World article, the English science fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke (1917e2008) described in detail the possible use of communications satellites for mass communications
examined the logistics of satellite launch, possible orbits, and other aspects of the creation of a network of world-circling satellites, pointing to the benefits of high-speed global communications. He also suggested that three geostationary satellites would provide coverage over the entire planet.
October 4, 1957 with the successful launch and operation of the Russian Sputnik satellite, which was the first human created instrument to orbit the Earth.
the start of the space age and the USeUSSR space race.
carried no Earth-oriented sensors and only really sent out radio signals that were used to communicate with the satellite. It did demonstrate, however, that satellites could be launched from the Earth and operated on a continuous basis.
on November 3, Sputnik II was launched, carrying a much heavier payload, including a dog named Laika. Table 1.1 lists all of the first satellites launched by 12 different countries starting with the Soviet Union launch of Sputnik-1 in 1957.
There were also a number of attempted first launches by many of these same countries before they were successful at launching a satellite and inserting it in to Earth orbit. Several other countries, including Brazil, Argentina, Pakistan, Romania, Taiwan, Indonesia, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Turkey, Spain, Japan, India, Israel, France, Germany, and Switzerland (and others) are at various stages of development of their own small-scale launcher capabilities. This list grows a lot longer when you include nations and satellites that were launched by the capabilities of other nations.
Today with the advent of small satellites such as “CubeSats” almost anyone can get a satellite payload into space. It is something the commercial remote sensing companies are taking a very close look at.
US: how Earth-orbiting satellites could benefit the meteorological forecasting community in monitoring conditions on the Earth
the first TIROS (Television and Infrared Observation Satellite) was launched and made operational in April of 1960. This satellite was spin stabilized which led to the fact that the Earth-oriented sensor (aligned with the spin access) could view only a limited portion of the Earth’s latitude
The primary sensor was the wide-angle TV camera, which collected images of the Earth at approximately 750 km orbital altitude. A small infrared (IR) system was also used to collect some limited measurements through the narrow angle TV camera that also collected radiation in visible wavelengths. The receiving and transmitting antennas are shown, and all data collected were transmitted as analog signals down to the ground. A tape recorder on board was used to store these analog data so that they could be downlinked to the ground when the satellite was in view of a tracking ground station.
Thus, the TIROS satellites were incapable of observing the entire globe. This was a limitation of the spin stabilization at least as it was deployed in this fashion.
These early satellite designs were driven primarily by meteorological considerations and the need for improved forecasting.
Since all of the TIROS imagery were analog the correction of these geometric distortions was not possible using digital methods and mapping was done by overlaying “warped grids” that best matched the orientation of the global features. This type of mapping approach determined the lines on
Land surface features were also apparent in the early TIROS imagery when cloud cover was sufficiently low to make it possible to view the surface.
Here the lake covers a number of satellite passes each of which has a slightly different exposures. This produces artificial striping in the image. Earth surface distortion continues to be a problem as shown by the elongated part of the lake in the southwest portion of the image. The presence of clouds in this same portion of the image also obscures the surface of the lake. Discontinuities in the cloud cover are introduced by the fact that the image is made up of sequential passes, which are not truly synoptic in coverage.
The initial TIROS satellites were relatively short-lived with satellites lasting only a few months each. By the end of the series, however, the satellites were lasting approximately a year and continuing to report data over this entire period.
To overcome the viewing limitations of the original TIROS series of satellites the next generation of spinning satellites was changed to have the camera pointing radially outward and the spin axis of the satellite turned 90 degrees relative to the original TIROS satellites. This new configuration was called the “wheel” satellite and a consequence of this change was the ability to collect a series of circular images that over the period of a day covered the entire surface of the Earth.
The next development in the evolution of operational weather satellites was the incorporation of spacecraft stability control.Developed as part of the ballistic missile program during the “cold war,” three-axes stability systems were now available to control the pointing of the spacecraft without the need to spin the spacecraft. With this three-axes stabilization, it was possible to keep the Earth sensors always pointing at the Earth regardless of its position in the orbit. This made it possible to collect imagery over the entire Earth’s surface from the same sensors at the same resolution.
Called the Improved TIROS Observing Satellite, or ITOS, this family of satellites brought in a new era of remote sensing. In addition to the three-axes stabilization, these satellites carried a new suite of optical radiometers which were scanning systems that collected reflected and emitted radiation from the Earth’s surface line by line as the satellite moved along in its polar orbit. These first radiometers (Fig. 1.17) ushered in the new era of improved capabilities that became a standard approach to viewing the Earth.
The ITOS scanning radiometers were those that became the primary instruments for future satellites.
The first ITOS satellite demonstrated the utility of these new technologies and began a longer time series of polar-orbiting spacecraft, which were now called NOAA satellites after the name of the agency that operated them. A series of eight satellites with approximately the same suite of equipment filled in the years between 1970 and 1976. The practice was to designate the satellites as NOAA a, b, c, etc. when they were built, and then transition them to NOAA 1, 2, 3.etc. once they were operating on orbit. The fact that not all of the NOAA satellites achieved orbit or failed early on orbit led to the fact that alpha and numeric designations do not map one to one.
Now the orbital altitude is about 1271 km and the orbit is Sun-synchronous with an 80-degree inclination in a retrograde orbit with a period of about 111 min.
A big change over this evolution of satellite capabilities was the size and weight of the spacecraft. The original TIROS satellites weighed about 150 kg, which increased to 250 kg with the change to the ESSA wheel satellites. The shift to three-axes stabilization increased the ITOS satellite up to 400 kg, which then increased by over a factor of three to the modern NOAA and Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) satellites that weigh about 1500 kg.
The analog radiometer data from the NOAA satellites were digitized on the ground so that the images could be digitally processed and enhanced to geometrically correct the image geolocation and bring out various features in the atmosphere and on the ground. The geometric corrections for Earth curvature and rotation compensated for the distortions of satellite viewing. Additional corrections were also needed for satellite attitude and time, which influences the viewing angle.
Radiance enhancement was needed to bring out the weaker gradients in some of the radiometer channels such as the thermal IR patterns in the ocean. An example is shown here in Fig. 1.19, which is an image of the Gulf of Mexico and the east coast of Florida, which shows the warm water (dark gray shades) associated with the loop current in the Gulf of Mexico and the subsequent Gulf Stream off the east of Florida. The colder water closer to the shore off Florida represents the colder “shelf water” that flows southward inshore of the Gulf Stream. Colder waters also bound the dark pattern of the loop current in the center of the Gulf of Mexico.
This image has been remapped to correct for geometric distortion, which can be seen in the appearance of Florida at the edge of the image, which would be highly distorted if seen in satellite perspective. It is very difficult to quantitatively study features in satellite imagery without being able to “navigate” the imagery, which includes the geometric corrections for Earth curvature and rotation as well as corrections for spacecraft attitude and timing errors.
The ITOS and NOAA satellites carried two different radiometers. The primary instrument was the scanning radiometer (SR), which had an 8 km resolution and was limited to only three channels: (1) a wide band visible, (2) a near-IR channel (0.7e1.1 mm), and (3) a thermal IR (11 mm) channel. The instrument was used to map clouds and later applied to the mapping of sea surface temperature (SST) using the 11 mm channel. A sophisticated processing system was developed that used a histogram method to filter out pixels dominated by clouds to produce SST over large 50 km boxes. This system was found to introduce a lot of errors by letting some cloudy pixels slip through and used an objective analysis (Cressman, 1959) routine that “filled” in erroneous data.
Another instrument flown on the NOAA satellites was the very high resolution radiometer (VHRR), which was the first instrument to demonstrate a real capability for being able to map SST. It had channels in the visible, the near-IR wavelengths, and the midrange IR and the thermal IR wavelengths (again 11 mm). Using the visible and near-IR channels for cloud clearing the VHRR data were then used to produce a 1 km resolution SST, which was the native resolution of the instrument. The image in Fig. 1.19 is from the VHRR sensor.
The biggest change in satellites and sensors came in the fall of 1978 with the advent of TIROS-N (“N” for new). An advanced version of this series of NOAA polar-orbiting satellites the last of which is still operating as this text is being written. These are the 1500 kg spacecraft referred to earlier where the added weight reflects greatly increased capabilities with these new spacecraft. They were fully digital systems that downlinked their data digitally. A new imager called the advanced very high resolution radiometer (AVHRR) became the workhorse radiometer on this spacecraft. With its basic 1 km footprint in four channels the AVHRR data have been used for a wide range of studies of ocean, land, and atmospheric processes. Over the subsequent three decades, this instrument has evolved from having only four channels to one that now has six different channels, is called AVHRR-3, and has the characteristics as described in Table2.
The original four channels covered the visible ( channel 1), the near-IR (channel 2), the mid- range IR (channel 3 only at 3.7 mm), and the 11 mm (channel 4) thermal IR. The first improvement in this sensor led to the AVHRR-2, which added the fifth channel at 12 mm. This channel was added to provide a “split-window” in the thermal IR to ma ke it possible to correct for atmospheric water vapor attenuation of the thermal IR signal i n computing SST. The nominal sensor spatial resolution of 1.09 km meant that all of the channe ls delivered images with essentially the same resolution.
Channel 3 is now broken into two parts. The approximately 3.7 mm channel (now called channel 3B) is continued at night, but during the day this channel shifts over to 1.6 mm to better resolve at- mospheric aerosols and clouds. The visible and near-IR channels are widely used for mapping vegetation, snow cover, and atmospheric aerosols. These channels are also used for mapping snow and ice cover. The thermal IR channels are also used to compute land surface temperature in addition to SST.
The TIROS-N satellites also carried a variety of other instruments. The high-resolution IR sounder is the primary sensor in the TIROS operational sounder system that also includes data from the British stratospheric sounding unit , and the microwave sounding unit (MSU). Together these three in- struments are used to retrieve atmospheric temperature and water vapor profiles for use in numerical model assimilation. Actually it was learned that it was better to directly assimilate satellite instrument radiances from this system into the numerical weather forecast models than it would be to retrieve temperature and water vapor profiles to be assimilated into the models.
Other instruments on TIROS-N (Fig. 1.20) are the search and rescue (SAR in Fig. 1.20B) and Argos data collection system (UHF data collection system antenna in Fig. 1.20A). Both of these systems collect data transmitted from the Earth’s surface and use the Doppler shift of these signals to accurately locate these platforms. The Argos system also has the capability of collecting a limited amount (approximately 256 data words) of geophysical data collected on the platform.
This diagram shows how this spacecraft has considerable extra capacity and other sensors of opportunity have been flown on this satellite such as the Earth Radiation Budget Experiment in- struments that flew only on NOAA-9. These TIROS-N satellites continued to carry the name of NOAA satellites. A picture of a TIROS-N satellite being worked on in storage is shown in Fig. 1.21, to give the reader a better appreciation of the size of these satellites.
A summary of the evolution of polar-orbiting environmental satellite (POES) weather satellites is given here in Fig. 1.22, which contains pictures of the important satellites and the relevant characteristics.
Paper quick look
Sarma, V. V. S. S., et al. "Influence of eddies on phytoplankton composition in the Bay of Bengal." Continental Shelf Research (2020): 104241.
A in-situ study. Phytoplankton composition measured by HPLC
Picoplankton was high in the entire study region with dominant nanoplankton in the cyclonic eddies and microplankton in anticyclonic eddies.
Effects of changing phytoplankton species composition on carbon and nitrogen uptake in benthic invertebrates
We found that all three macrofauna species fed on both diatoms and cyanobacteria. A linear pattern was found for all three species in assimilation of carbon and nitrogen from diatoms, with increasing assimilation associated with higher proportion of diatoms. There was no clear pattern found between proportion of cyanobacteria and assimilation of carbon and nitrogen for any of the species. This study shows that the investigated macrofaunal species display a selective feeding behavior with preference for spring‐bloom associated diatoms. Thus, changes in phytoplankton bloom composition are likely affecting benthic species composition and production.
Seasonal physical fronts and associated biogeochemical‐ecological effects off the Jiangsu Shoal in the western Yellow Sea, China
Due to favorable conditions, the frontal region off the shoal is prone to high chlorophyll‐a (Chl‐a) and may act as oases in either summer or winter. A conceptual diagram is assembled to provide an overview of physical‐biogeochemical‐ecological interactions off the Jiangsu Shoal in the western YS.
Decreasing phytoplankton size adversely affects ocean food chains
An increase in the proportion of primary production by nano‐ and picophytoplankton has qualitative as well as quantitative consequences for future food production from the oceans, since this is where the biosynthesis of important components of our diet takes place.
Seasonal and spatial variability in surface pCO2 and air–water CO2 flux in the Chesapeake Bay
our observations showed higher river discharge could decrease CO2 efflux. In contrast to many other estuaries worldwide that are strong sources of CO2 to the atmosphere, the Chesapeake Bay and potentially other large estuaries are very weak CO2 sources in dry years, and could even turn into a CO2 sink in wet years.
Composite of Typhoon‐Induced Sea Surface Temperature and Chlorophyll‐a Responses in the South China Sea
Decreases in SST and increases in Chl‐a occur after 73% and 70% of the typhoons, respectively, with overall averaged changes equal to −0.42 ± 0.015°C and 0.056 ± 0.003 log10 mg/m3, respectively.